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TERRA ECONOMICUS

The systems paradigm and the theory of technology


TERRA ECONOMICUS, , Vol. 22 (no. 4),

This paper explores the fundamental principles of production technology through the lens of a systems analysis. It examines how production technology is applied in space and time, transforming raw materials into finished products. The goal of this study is to uncover the universal aspects of technology and the mechanisms for its implementation across various economic and social sectors. The analysis is based on the systems paradigm, which views the socio-economic and technical-technological realms as areas where systems interact. These systems are relatively stable entities that exist within a particular space and timeframe. The fundamental components of a technology are defined as environmental, process, project, and object systems. The combination of these elements characterizes each specific technology in various fields such as economics (economic technologies), business (business technologies), engineering (engineering technologies), society (social technologies), and others. It is shown that typical technological routes should be structured around a specific way of combining the key elements of the technology implementation. Being essential for technological sustainability, these routes ensure a costeffective transition between the technological stages. These routes can be visualized as connected fragments of the “environment – process – project – subject – environment” contour. This contour can be seen as a diagram of a typical unit of technological space. The findings of this study can be used as a methodological basis for comparing and predicting the sustainability and efficiency of existing technologies in various economic and social sectors.
Citation: Kleiner G.B. (2024). The systems paradigm and the theory of technology. Terra Economicus 22(4), 6–18 (in Russian). DOI: 10.18522/2073-6606-2024-22-4-6-18

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The fragmentation of political and economic system in Russia: Past and present


TERRA ECONOMICUS, , Vol. 22 (no. 4),

This article explores the current challenges of the political and economic system in Russia in the context of path dependence and lock-in concepts. The research combines the methods of new political economy, new institutional economics, and the world-system approach. The analysis shows that when Russia became a world empire and integrated into the global economy, this integration was quite fragmentary. The separated enclaves were isolated from the main part of the economy. Consequently, the economy and society were integrated through political and administrative centralization. We demonstrate how the fragmentation of economic markets and the reproduction of political and administrative centralization occurred in different periods: the imperial, Soviet, and modern times. Particular attention is paid to the combination of institutions that determine the relationship between the rules of political and economic interaction within the country, on the one hand, and the regimes of closedness or openness, on the other hand. The economic development in the post-Soviet period has shown the need to overcome the fragmentation of the political and economic system, which has taken the form of a dual-enclave economy. However, attempts to build an innovative-type economy and reindustrialization projects have not yet facilitated the creation of growth poles with long and complex value chains and have not contributed to ensuring long-term economic development. The situation after February 2022 gave rise to new challenges. It became obvious that the country’s development depends on creating a political and economic system that ensures a balance between overcoming the fragmentation of economic markets and the need to maintain political and administrative centralization. This article provides a comparative description of two alternative ways to organize such a system.
Citation: Levin S.N., Sablin K.S. (2024). The fragmentation of political and economic system in Russia: Past and present. Terra Economicus 22(4), 19–33 (in Russian). DOI: 10.18522/2073-66062024-22-4-19-33

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Assessing peasant inequality in pre-revolutionary Russia by quantitative methods (Microdata analysis)


TERRA ECONOMICUS, , Vol. 22 (no. 4),

This article explores the issue of peasant inequality in Russia before the Revolution, specifically focusing on the period after the Stolypin reform. We use microdata from five regions to conduct our analysis, including two European provinces (Novgorod and Simbirsk) and three non-European regions (the Steppe Territory, Central Asia, and the Far East). In the Steppe Territory, two regions were surveyed during the study period: Turgai and Ural. Our analysis revealed that the most significant stratification among peasants occurred in terms of indicators such as the cost of hired labor, the cost of equipment, and income from land and livestock. Calculations of the Gini index showed that the stratification of the peasantry was quite high. Cluster analysis showed that in the Central Asian regions and the Novgorod province, peasants are divided into three groups; in the districts of the Steppe General Government and the Amur Region, two clusters are clearly distinguished; for the Simbirsk region, the analysis did not show a clear division; depending on the criterion, the division is possible into either two or three clusters. Regression analysis allowed us to draw the following conclusions: (1) In different regions of the Russian Empire, there was approximately the same level of inequality, despite significant differences in average household incomes in different provinces; (2) Within individual provinces, the regional/geographical factor was less important for the growth of inequality compared to the social factor; (3) Different factors had the greatest impact on income inequality in different regions.
Citation: Rozinskaya N.A., Borodkin L.I., Artamonov D.V. (2024). Assessing peasant inequality in pre-revolutionary Russia by quantitative methods (Microdata analysis). Terra Economicus 22(4), 34–49 (in Russian). DOI: 10.18522/2073-6606-2024-22-4-34-49

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Overcoming orthodoxy in Economics: Theoretical and methodological aspects


TERRA ECONOMICUS, , Vol. 22 (no. 4),

The aim of this study is to understand the origins and the key elements of orthodoxy in economic science. We will look back on the history and assess how certain ideas and beliefs have affected the development of economic knowledge over time. The paper also explores the negative impact these concepts and doctrines have on the development of modern economics. We focus on several historical periods, which are qualitatively different from each other. Firstly, we consider the key elements of economic orthodoxy, which emerged during the development of economic thought. In particular, the article examines the characteristics of orthodoxy in the views of proponents of mercantilist economic ideology, who overstated the principles of protectionism and empiricism, and the views of the classics of political economy, who emphasized the freedom of entrepreneurial activity (economic liberalism), as well as the causal approach in economic research. Then, we analyze the trends of economic thought that emerged after classical political economy: economic romanticism, utopian socialism, neoclassic theory, the German historical school, institutionalism, Keynesianism, and neoliberalism. These currents of economic thought are associated with the periods when orthodoxy in economics was being overcome. The novelty of this study is threefold. (1) We summarize and systematize the theoretical, methodological, and socially oriented reformist propositions that shaped propositions alternative to the orthodox ones. (2) We show that the key components of orthodoxy today hinder the development of economic science and economic education. (3) The article substantiates that only by overcoming orthodoxy will the modern scientific, economic, and educational community be able to avoid perceiving economic theories as suitable for all societies and all times, as well as from distinguishing them into “Western” and “non-Western”, “bourgeois” and “non-bourgeois” ones.
Citation: Yadgarov Y.S., Orlova D.R. (2024). Overcoming orthodoxy in Economics: Theoretical and methodological aspects. Terra Economicus 22(4), 50–61 (in Russian). DOI: 10.18522/2073-66062024-22-4-50-61

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Dynamic capabilities of an industrial enterprise as an element of institutional environment: Empirical assessment


TERRA ECONOMICUS, , Vol. 22 (no. 4),

The challenges of quantitatively and qualitatively assessing the institutional environment of an industrial enterprise are twofold. On the one hand, the complexity of the subject matter makes it difficult to fully understand and analyze. On the other hand, there are not enough effective tools available to assess this complex environment effectively. We propose an approach to assessing the institutional environment that combines the elements of institutional theory and the resource concept. According to this approach, dynamic capabilities are not just a resource but are a key part of the institutional environment of industrial enterprises. This approach is crucial for assessing the potential for domestic industry to develop in the current economic environment. We argue that the ability to adapt to changes in the external environment and reconfigure available resources determines the coordination role of the institutional environment. To assess these dynamic capabilities, a questionnaire survey is conducted. The sample included industrial enterprises in the Lipetsk Region of Russia. The survey results were presented in two-year dynamics as a multi-component assessment of the key competencies of an industrial enterprise: its ability to adapt to changes in the external environment and its ability to reconfigure its resources. The findings show that that enterprises have a relatively low ability to reconfigure in terms of human resource management. This is because employees may not be able to adapt to new conditions in the internal environment. However, the data show that industrial enterprises are building competencies to create innovations through cooperative interactions in response to external constraints. Research findings can be used by industrial sector enterprises in strategic planning and developing measures to improve the sustainability and efficiency of their economic activity.
Citation: Shevchenko I.K., Razvadovskaya Yu.V., Kaplyuk E.V., Serikov V.V. (2024). Dynamic capabilities of an industrial enterprise as an element of institutional environment: Empirical assessment. Terra Economicus 22(4), 62–74 (in Russian). DOI: 10.18522/2073-6606-2024-22-4-62-74

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The impact of multitasking on labor productivity: An experimental evaluation


TERRA ECONOMICUS, , Vol. 22 (no. 4),

Employers are increasingly seeking workers with multitasking abilities. However, researchers have shown both positive and negative aspects of multitasking. This article presents an experimental study that aims to investigate the effects of multitasking on labor productivity. In this study, we compare the time spent on performing tasks one at a time with the time it takes to complete the same tasks while multitasking. We also attempt to determine how an employee’s gender affects productivity when multitasking. The experiment involved 80 university students from the Faculty of Business at the Novosibirsk State Technical University aged between 18 and 20 years old, including 39 women and 41 men. To evaluate the impact of multitasking on labor productivity, we used a modified version of the OSPAN task. The participant performed two independent tasks simultaneously, competing for their limited attention. One task involved performing arithmetic operations, while the other involved sorting a deck of cards by suit. This experimental design allowed us to model the process of switching between tasks. During the experiment, we observed an increase in the time it took to complete tasks when switching from sequential execution to multitasking. Based on this finding, we concluded that multitasking has a negative impact on productivity. We did not observe a significant impact of gender on productivity loss. However, this does not mean that this effect is absent. Rather, it suggests the need for further research.
Citation: Shmakov A.V. (2024). The impact of multitasking on labor productivity: An experimental evaluation. Terra Economicus 22(4), 75–86 (in Russian). DOI: 10.18522/2073-6606-2024-22-4-75-86

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Assessing the level of human capital in Russian regions


TERRA ECONOMICUS, , Vol. 22 (no. 4),

The existing literature measures human capital by the education level, health indicators, or using the human development index. This is because there is no other indicator available in the official statistics of Russia. However, in modern times, it is essential to consider the multifaceted nature of human capital and develop a method for assessing its level that is both adequate in content and based on available information. In this study we aim at comparing three approaches to assessing human capital by: (1) the average length of education among the economically active population; (2) the extended index proposed by Nataliya Shepeleva and Anatoliy Akulov; (3) the multi-indicator index developed by the authors. We apply the methods of comparative analysis, index and rating approaches, and correlation analysis. Our dataset covers 85 regions of Russia and spans the period from 2015 to 2022. According to the first approach, based on the average length of education of the economically active population, three federal cities (Moscow, Saint Petersburg and Sevastopol) and the Moscow region were in the top positions in the 2022 ranking. The second approach relies on an extended method of six-component assessment of human capital proposed by N. Shepeleva and A. Akulov. This approach showed that Moscow, St. Petersburg, and the Moscow region became the leaders, while the Trans-Baikal Territory lagged significantly behind. According to our integral seven-component index, the top five included Moscow, St. Petersburg, the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug, the Murmansk and Novosibirsk regions. The Chechen Republic was in last position in 2022. A comparative analysis of the three methods was performed using a correlation analysis of the human capital estimates with the real GRP per one economically active person. We found that the correlation coefficients are significant, with a moderately positive relationship with real labor productivity, and have increased by 1,56 times over 8 years. The findings of this study can be used in regional administration and statistics to better justify the goals and activities of regional economic policy.
Citation: Karelin I.N., Litvintseva G.P. (2024). Assessing the level of human capital in Russian regions. Terra Economicus 22(4), 87–100 (in Russian). DOI: 10.18522/2073-6606-2024-22-4-87-100

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Sectoral composition of tax revenue stress in Russia and its regions amid the pandemic and new sanctions


TERRA ECONOMICUS, , Vol. 22 (no. 4),

The study explores the changing sectoral structure of tax revenue stress in Russia in the context of the pandemic and new sanctions. We aim to understand the dynamics of the tax revenue stress index for the main types of economic activity and identify the contribution of different sectors to the overall tax revenue stress in both Russia and its regions. To achieve this, we have deflated tax revenues and applied our own methodology to assess tax revenue stress and decompose it by sources. The results show that the Ural and Far Eastern Federal Districts have the highest average tax revenue stress and its greatest variability. During the period of new international sanctions against Russia, tax revenue stress increased significantly in the North-Western Federal District, while it rose the least in the Central Federal District. The highest average tax revenue stress was observed in the mining sector, while the lowest was in the construction sector. The mining sector contributed the most to tax revenue stress in Russia and most federal districts. It also played a major role in increasing stress during both the pandemic and the period of new sanctions. Finance and insurance also significantly contributed to the rise in tax revenue stress during these periods. The manufacturing sector played a different role: it acted as a stress damper during the pandemic, but contributed significantly to tax revenue stress during the period of new sanctions. The trade sector also proved to be an important damper, reducing tax revenue stress during both periods of shocks. Most regions experienced a higher average level of stress during the period of new sanctions compared to the pandemic. Under the sanctions, the manufacturing sector’s contribution to tax revenue stress increased significantly in a number of regions. This study could be helpful for federal and regional regulators in managing tax revenues during the times of new shocks.
Citation: Malkina M.Yu., Balakin R.V. (2024). Sectoral composition of tax revenue stress in Russia and its regions amid the pandemic and new sanctions. Terra Economicus 22(4), 101–118 (in Russian). DOI: 10.18522/2073-6606-2024-22-4-101-118
Acknowledgment: The research was funded by the Russian Science Foundation, project № 23-78-10160, https://rscf.ru/ project/23-78-10160/

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Human potential through the lens of subjective well-being: How perceptions have changed from 2003 to 2023


TERRA ECONOMICUS, , Vol. 22 (no. 4),

The article explores various aspects of how Russians perceive the development and preservation of their human potential. We demonstrate that, despite some positive changes, Russians mostly view their own situation and opportunities in relation to human potential as average. This finding aligns with the overall perception of the population’s subjective social well-being. The way Russians have assessed various aspects of human potential over the past 20 years has followed a general trend in their subjective social well-being. Between 2003 and 2013, most aspects experienced positive changes. However, from 2013 to 2023, the situation stabilized and became more balanced in different groups, including those with more advantages. Today, self-assessments of human potential show the greatest differences between various social and professional groups. There are also smaller differences between urban and rural residents, and the inequality between them has decreased over the past 20 years. Similarly, the differences between groups with various levels of education and income have also been reduced. For the population as a whole, the dynamics of evaluations of human potential have been mixed during this period. The share of average evaluations has increased due to a decrease in both negative and positive evaluations for some aspects, especially the level of health. One positive change that Russians have noticed in the past 10 years is the increased availability of necessary education. The trend towards more balanced assessments and the specific way inequalities are being reduced in this area may pose new challenges for the search for a model of sustainable development based on human potential. This trend implies a relative deterioration in the situation of the most advantaged groups in terms of human potential, which could serve as a social base for this process.
Citation: Mareeva S.V., Sushko P.E., Slobodenyuk E.D., Belopashentseva P.V. (2024). Human potential through the lens of subjective well-being: How perceptions have changed from 2003 to 2023. Terra Economicus 22(4), 119–136 (in Russian). DOI: 10.18522/2073-6606-2024-22-4-119-136
Acknowledgment: The article was supported by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation (research grant ID 075-15-2022-325).

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The pitfalls of “Open Science”


TERRA ECONOMICUS, , Vol. 22 (no. 4),

The article explores the challenges that have emerged as open science practices have become more widespread. I suggest a classification of factors that may hinder the transition to a more widespread adoption of these practices. Open science refers to a set of principles and methods that aim to make scientific research in all fields accessible to everyone, benefiting both scientists and society as a whole. In recent years, funding agencies have been increasingly calling for a shift towards open access and other principles of open science. However, experience has shown that there are not only expected limitations but also unintended effects that can even conflict with the values of open science, such as equity and inclusiveness. Based on a review of secondary sources, the article proposes a typology of limiting factors that can be divided into five extended groups. These include resource factors, regulatory factors, institutional factors, cultural and educational factors, and motivational factors. A more detailed analysis of the emerging barriers to open access and open data has shown that each practice has its own set of challenges. However, resource and regulatory factors are the most significant in both cases. For open access, institutional factors have a more pronounced influence. On the other hand, motivational factors are a more significant obstacle for open data. The main pitfalls seem to be the growing stratification, the potential risks associated with the disclosure of personal data, and the continually increasing costs for publications in open access. The involvement of Russia in open science is currently limited by sanctions. This does not diminish the importance of promoting open access through models that do not require the transfer of funds overseas. At the same time, it is important to expand the publishing in English. It would be beneficial to use the capabilities of the BRICS countries in developing open data infrastructure.
Citation: Dezhina I.G. (2024). The pitfalls of “Open Science”. Terra Economicus 22(4), 137–150 (in Russian). DOI: 10.18522/2073-6606-2024-22-4-137-150
Acknowledgment: open science; open science practices; open data; open access; obstacles; dissemination challenges; political constraints

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Debates on slavery and the development of economic thinking: About the book “Calculation and Morality” by C. Oudin-Bastide and Ph. Steiner


TERRA ECONOMICUS, , Vol. 22 (no. 4),

The paper reviews the book “Calculation and Morality. The Costs of Slavery and the Price of Emancipation (XVIII–XIX centuries)” / “Calcul et morale. Coûts de l’esclavage et valeur de l’émancipation (XVIIIe–XIXe siècle)” by Caroline OudinBastide and Philippe Steiner, published in Russian in 2024. The authors address the history of French debates on slavery. They examine attempts to assess the economic efficiency of slavery, as well as discussions about the need for and ways to free slaves and restructure the labor market and economy in French colonies. Given that slavery has been a key economic pillar of Western European colonial empires for a long time, it’s not surprising that this topic was among the most widely discussed issues when the discipline of political economy was emerging. Oudin-Bastide and Steiner examine the rhetoric and arguments used by both supporters and opponents of slavery in the XVIII–XIX centuries. They show how economic estimates and calculations gradually gained popularity among both sides as an important addition to traditional moral arguments. This shift was due to the secularization and rationalization of morality in Europe during the Enlightenment Age. Furthermore, political economists were inspired by the progress in natural sciences, which they saw as a model for their own field. In their effort to prove their point of view and refute the arguments of their opponents, participants in the debates on slavery contributed to the development of the conceptual framework and methodological tools for economic analysis. Based on a wide range of sources, the book by Oudin-Bastide and Steiner gives an interesting description of a significant episode in economic history and the history of economic thought. It also provides a comprehensive account of the factors that drive the development of social, economic, and political thought and the underlying logic behind it.
Citation: Kadochnikov D.V. (2024). Debates on slavery and the development of economic thinking: About the book “Calculation and Morality” by C. Oudin-Bastide and Ph. Steiner. Terra Economicus 22(4), 151–159 (in Russian). DOI: 10.18522/2073-6606-2024-22-4-151-159

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